托福机经2025:9月20日（上午场）托福阅读机经是什么

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托福阅读机经

托福阅读机经：历史ancient agriculture

天文学用新技术到各个行星探测表面温差和water ice

哺乳动物猫的感知器官

托福阅读机经：历史Artisan in 16th century

For centuries European artisans had operated in small, autonomous handicraft businesses, but by the sixteenth century an evolving economic system—moving toward modern capitalism, with its free-market pricing, new organization of production, investments, and so on—had started to erode their stable and relatively prosperous position. What forces contributed to the decline of the artisan?

In a few industries there appeared technological innovations that cost more to install and operate than artisans—even associations of artisans—could afford. For example, in iron production, such specialized equipment as blast furnaces, tilt hammers, wire-drawing machines, and stamping, rolling, and slitting mills became more familiar components of the industry. Thus the need for fixed capital (equipment and buildings used in production) soared. Besides these items, expensive in their own right, facilities for water, storage, and deliveries were needed. In addition, pig (raw) iron turned out by blast furnaces could not be forged until refined further in a new intermediate stage. In late sixteenth-century Antwerp, where a skilled worker earned 125 to 250 guilders a year, a large blast furnace alone cost 3,000 guilders, and other industrial equipment was equally or more expensive.

Raw materials, not equipment, constituted artisans’ major expense in most trades, however. Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom (and made small payments over many years to pay off the debt for purchasing the loom), every six weeks he or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required to make a piece of cloth. Thus, access to cheap and plentiful primary materials was a constant preoccupation for independent producers. Using local materials might allow even the poorest among them to avoid reliance on merchant suppliers. The loss of nearby sources could therefore be devastating. As silk cultivation waned around the Spanish cities of Cordoba and Toledo, weavers in these cities were forced to become employees of merchants who put out raw silk from Valencia and Murcia provinces. In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported unprocessed salt from France, Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry once exploitation of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes (which held back the sea from the low-lying Dutch land) would be undermined.

Credit was necessary for production but created additional vulnerabilities for artisans. Prices for industrial products lagged behind those of raw materials and foodstuffs, and this, coupled with rising taxes, made it difficult for many producers to repay their creditors. Periodic downturns, when food prices shot up and demand for manufactures fell off, drove them further into debt or even into bankruptcy, from which they might emerge only by agreeing to sell their products exclusively to merchants or fellow artisans who extended them loans. Frequent enough during periods of growth, such credit crises became deeper and lasted longer after about 1570, as did war-related disruptions of raw-material supplies and markets.

Artisans’ autonomy was imperiled, too, by restrictions on their access to markets. During the sixteenth century, a situation like this often resulted from the concentration of export trade in a few great storage and distribution centers. The disappearance of regional markets where weavers in Flanders (what is now northern Belgium) had previously bought flax and sold linen left them at the mercy of big-city middlemen, who quickly turned them into domestic workers. In a similar fashion, formerly independent producers in southern Wiltshire in England, who had bought yarn from spinners or local brokers and sold their cloth to merchants in nearby Salisbury, because subject to London merchants who monopolized both wool supplies and woolens exports.

With good reason, finally, urban artisans feared the growth of industries in the countryside. For one thing, they worried that the spread of village crafts would reduce their supply of raw materials, driving up prices. City producers also knew that rural locations enjoyed lower living costs, wages, and taxes, and often employed fewer or simplified processes. These advantages became a major preoccupation as competition intensified in the 1570s and 1580s.

重复历年真题：2019.1.12

托福阅读机经：历史Public transportation

美国公共交通的建设

托福阅读机经：鸟类bird colonies

About 13 percent of bird species, including most seabirds, nest in colonies. Colonial nesting evolves in response to a combination of two environmental conditions: (1) a shortage of nesting sites that are safe from predators and (2) abundant or unpredictable food that is distant from safe nest sites. Colonial nesting has both advantages and disadvantages. First and foremost, individual birds are safer in colonies that are inaccessible to predators, as on small rocky islands. In addition, colonial birds detect predators more quickly than do small groups or pairs and can drive the predators from the vicinity of the nesting area. Because nests at the edges of breeding colonies are more vulnerable to predators than those in the centers, the preference for advantageous central sites promotes dense centralized packing of nests.

The yellow-rumped cacique, which nests in colonies in Amazonian Peru, demonstrates how colonial birds prevent predation. These tropical blackbirds defend their closed, pouchlike nests against predators in three ways. First, by nesting on islands and near wasp nests, caciques are safe from arboreal mammals such as primates. Second, caciques mob predators (work together as a group to attack predators). The effectiveness of mobbing as increases with group size, which increases with colony size. Third, caciques hide their nests from predators by mixing active nests with abandoned nests. Overall, nests in clusters on islands and near wasp nests suffer the least predation.

Coordinated social interactions tend to be weak when a colony is first forming, but true colonies provide extra benefits. Synchronized nesting, for example, produces abundance of eggs and chicks that exceeds the daily needs of local predators. Additionally, colonial neighbors can improve their foraging by watching others. This behavior is especially valuable when the offsite food supplies are restricted or variable in location, as are swarms of aerial insects harvested by swallows. The colonies of American cliff swallows, for example, serve as information centers from which unsuccessful individual birds follow successful neighbors to good feeding sites. Cliff swallows that are unable to find food return to their colony, locate a neighbor that has been successful, and then follow that neighbor to its food source. All birds in the colony are equally likely to follow or to be followed and thus contribute to the sharing of information that helps to ensure their reproductive success. As a result of their enhanced foraging efficiency, parent swallows in large colonies return with food for their nestlings more often and bring more food each trip than do parents in small colonies.

To support large congregations of birds, suitable colony sites must be near rich, clumped food supplies. Colonies of pinyon jays and red crossbills settles near seed-rich conifer forests, and wattled starlings nest in large colonies near locust outbreaks. The huge colonies of guanay cormorants and other seabirds that nest on the coast of Peru depend on the productive cold waters of the Humboldt Current. The combination of abundant food in the Humboldt Current and the vastness of oceanic habitat can support enormous populations of seabirds, which concentrate at the few available nesting locations. The populations crash when their food supplies decline during EI Niño years.

Among the costs, colonial nesting leads to increased competition for nest sites and mates, the stealing of nest materials, and increased physical interference among other effects. In spite of food abundance, large colonies sometimes exhaust their local food supplies and abandon their nests. Large groups also attract predators, especially raptors, and facilitate the spread of parasites and diseases. The globular mud nests in large colonies of the American cliff swallow, for example, are more likely to be infested by fleas or other bloodsucking parasites than are nests in small colonies. Experiments in which some burrows were fumigated to kill the parasites showed that these parasites lowered survivorship by as much as 50 percent in large colonies but not significantly in small ones. The swallows inspect and then select parasite-free nests. In large colonies, they tend to build new nests rather than use old, infested ones. On balance, the advantages of colonial nesting clearly outweigh the disadvantages, given the many times at which colonial nesting has evolved independently among different groups of birds. Still lacking, however, is a general framework for testing different hypotheses for the evolution of coloniality.

重复历年真题：2017.4.15、2019.4.13、2019.7.6、2019.9.22、2020.1.4

托福阅读机经：历史the Port of Melaka

Melaka位于马来半岛西南，14世纪立国，继承Srivijaya航线保护传统，获Orang Laut效忠，护航并袭竞争对手船只。城内设地下warehouse防火防盗，季风12–3月西亚远东船至，5月爪哇船抵，商人停留需安全储存。Undang-Undang Melaka与海事法规范债务、船上犯罪。四名Syah bandar分管族群，监管度量衡、仲裁纠纷，船长向Syah bandar报到，转Benda Hara，关税按货值与产地征收。统治者收礼并终审。港口集散clove、nutmeg、sandalwood，印度纺织品经马来商人分销，换香料与异域货物，双重转口功能奠定国际地位。

重复历年真题：2025.4.23、2025.7.23

物种保护损害生物多样性的方式：外来动物，捕猎等

托福阅读机经：历史the Greek revival

在整个的希腊文明之中，希腊在文化政治和经济上，都有非常长足的发展，但是在希腊文明的末期不可避免地走向了衰败。因为当时生产的粮食无法支撑足够多的人口，因此人群慢慢向周围分散到了一些山地，但是山地的土壤也无法很好生产粮食，因此他们要想办法去解决人口的食物供给。第1种解决方案是从周围的地区，比如说从埃及来进口粮食。他们用各种各样的金属和陶器与周围的文明来进行交换，但是这种交易也不可避免地带来了摩擦，而当时的希腊人建造了非常灵活的战船，迅速控制了周围重要的贸易路线。

而解决粮食问题的第2个方法就是让人口继续向其他的地区迁徙。希腊的文明慢慢迁徙到了欧洲，迁徙到了地中海地区。但是因为希腊人只想进行海上贸易，所以主要占领的是沿海地区。在欧洲的南部，一些比较容易种植的地区，他们建立了巨大的殖民地，这个殖民地在文化和社会结构上与原来的希腊城邦完全z相同。而且保持着与希腊原始城邦很密切的情感联系，但是管理权仍然是完全独立的，而且因为殖民者大多是男性，因此他们的妻子往往都是在殖民地当中寻找，有的是当地的奴隶。这带来的直接结果就是希腊的文化传播到了很多的地中海地区和欧洲的南部以及东部。

希腊与其他文化交易的陶罐，有的是用做祭祀，还有的是用来装各种各样食物的。当然当时也已经生产出来了碗和盘子。当时所有的希腊城邦都可以生产陶器，而且在陶器上还有一些人物以及花纹。而且随着与其他文化的交融，周围的文明也慢慢进入到了希腊文化当中，比如说他们从周围文明学会了文字，也学会了货币，进而统一了周围的货币标准，而且他们还慢慢学会了艺术，形成了自己独特的绘画风格。比如说一些动物和人，但是希腊人也总会去修改这些艺术来变成希腊人自己的风格，他们在最早的货币当中也都设计了自己的图案，而且改变了其他文明的文字，进而去传播自己文化当中的传说。而且希腊文明也建立了自己的宗教寺庙，以及使得他们自己风格的寺庙在周围文化传播。

历年重复2025.3.15、2019.11.10、2017.03.11

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