托福TPO19阅读部分“难”度大揭密

　　Trade and the Ancient Middle East

　　Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East， as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert， restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times， partly due to the geology of the area， which is mostly limestone and sandstone， with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north， while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan， and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria， the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia， where they traded grain for raw materials， such as timber and stones， as well as for metals and gems.

　　Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment， were usually members of the same guild and religious sect， lived in the same neighborhoods， and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate， and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.

　　This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members， and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading； the government left working people to govern themselves， much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi- egalitarian organizations for fellowship， worship， and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment， individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality， following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power.

　　The mercantile economy was also characterized by a peculiar moral stance that is typical of people who live by trade—an attitude that is individualistic， calculating， risk taking， and adaptive to circumstances. As among tribespeople， personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation， where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. Nor have merchants and artisans ever had much tolerance for aristocratic professions of moral superiority， favoring instead an egalitarian ethic of the open market， where steady hard work， the loyalty of one's fellows， and entrepreneurial skill make all the difference. And， like the pastoralists， Middle Eastern merchants and artisans unhappy with their environment could simply pack up and leave for greener pastures—an act of self-assertion wholly impossible in most other civilizations throughout history.

　　Dependence on long-distance trade also meant that the great empires of the Middle East were built both literally and figuratively on shifting sand. The central state， though often very rich and very populous， was intrinsically fragile， since the development of new international trade routes could undermine the monetary base and erode state power， as occurred when European seafarers circumvented Middle Eastern merchants after Vasco da Gama's voyage around Africa in the late fifteenth century opened up a southern route. The ecology of the region also permitted armed predators to prowl the surrounding barrens， which were almost impossible for a state to control. Peripheral peoples therefore had a great advantage in their dealings with the center， making government authority insecure and anxious.

　　Paragraph 1： Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East， as caravans negotiated the surrounding desert， restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times， partly due to the geology of the area， which is mostly limestone and sandstone， with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north， while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan， and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria， the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia， where they traded grain for raw materials， such as timber and stones， as well as for metals and gems.

　　1. According to paragraph 1， why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East(这个题目我们用trade，important，history回原文定位寻读即 可，因为全文都涉及Middle East，所以这个词就不用其定位了。)

　　○The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas.(原文没有提及在周边沙漠地区的有 着很高的需求问题。恰恰相反，正是因为这块desert资源紧缺，所以才需要贸易往来 满足自己的需要。 with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north，就是这个意思。

　　其中ancient demands for obsidian是useful materials的同位语作为并行解释。括号后 面的话是解释obsidian的。obsidian这个东西在托福听力和阅读中都曾频繁出现过。 所以大家最好记住他。记不住的也不要紧，只要知道它是一种矿石就行了。 obsidian：a hard， dark， glasslike volcanic rock formed by the rapid solidification of lava without crystallization.)

　　This has been so since ancient times， partly due to the geology of the area， which is mostly limestone and sandstone， with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north， while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan， and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan.这句话的结构极具复杂，很有GRE难句的味道。建议大家对这句话要仔细分 析，体会。另外记住：对于这种难度的句子，修说在TOEFL中会是考察语言能力的考 点，就是在GRE中，ETS也一样不会放过它。

　　○Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor， forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain.(ETS惯用手法，原文没有说poor的问 题。所以大家不要望文生义。记住我之前说过的，一定要会原文定位，必须切切实实 的找到ETS要你定位的那句话，然后再看选项哪个是这句话的精确同义改写。否则你 很容易就落入ETS实现挖好的陷阱。)

　　○Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions.(正确选项。因为这句话体现了两个 重要信息点：第一：很多材料在中东地区匮乏；第二：但是这些匮乏资源在周边地区 都存在。 大家比较一下，是不是原文这句话的高度总结和精确改写： This has been so since ancient times， partly due to the geology of the area， which is mostly limestone and sandstone， with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north， while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan， and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan.)从这里我们知道，ETS在托福阅读中考你的究竟是什么？ 考你的就是能读懂这样“变态”句子的能力。对于高分GRE考生自然不在话下，但 是对于大多数toefl考生来说，你就知道，真正赢取高分toefl的资本是什么？我告诉你 吧，是能力，绝对是能力。能力这种东西绝对不是短期就能提高的。所以自己基础不 佳，但又企图速成的考生们请注意，请你们立即放弃这种天真的想法，因为这是不可 能存在的，也是绝对不能存在的。我且问你，你有什么办法能在自己基础不佳的情况 下，短期内让自己达到读懂上面这个句子的能力呢？这绝对是需要一定时间来让自己 适应的。所以越是想速成的人，到最后都发现自己会被这个速成的天真想法所欺骗。

　　○Frequent travel， due to limited water supplies in the Middle East， created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies.(这是第一句话的改写，但可惜的

　　是你发现你用important和trade和history定位的时候就会发现第一句话讲的不是这个 概念，所以出题点不是第一句话。)

　　Paragraph 2： Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment， were usually members of the same guild and religious sect， lived in the same neighborhoods， and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could，and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership.

　　2. The word

　　in the passage is closest in meaning to ○Respect

　　○Reject(repudiate的意思是：refuse to accept or be associated with )在

　　这我不能不说的是ETS有些难为人了，repudiate这个单词其实是GRE词汇，本就不 应该在托福中考察。另外上下文也没有相关提示。 ○review ○revise

　　3. According to paragraph 2， how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their

　　repudiate

　　repudiate

　　workers？(用shop owners treat workers 回原文定位，记住：托福阅读一定要回原文定 位确切的找到原文的那句话然后找到精确改写的答案选项就是正确答案。)

　　○Workers were ranked according to their skill level，(没有提及的概念，该选项错误直 接略去不看即可) with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop.

　　○Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters. (没有提及过的两个概念)

　　○Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership.( by a mutual contract that either one could)和这句话直接矛盾

　　○The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family.( In these shops differences of rank were blurred as

　　artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment， were usually members of the same guild and religious sect， lived in the same neighborhoods， and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships.)正确答案， 因为是这句话的高度总结和概括改写。blur做动词相当于：neutralize。大家以后在 写作中可以尝试多总结同义词，提高自己的写作修辞能力。kinship的意思就是 relationship like family。大家看到了吧，ETS又在这种看上去“变态”的难句中隐藏出 题点了，所以还是我提到过的两个概念。托福阅读就两条：词汇，长难句。要想得高 分，这两点功夫必须绝对的过硬才行。否则你绝对在托福阅读中大大的吃不开。